Origins and Pathways to Drug Abuse

Research Findings from May, 1999 Director's Report

This section lists selected summaries from NIDA funded research projects that investigate the origins and pathways to drug abuse. The summaries provided were selected from recent issues of the Director's Report to the National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse. For a more comprehensive listing of NIDA funded projects see the Director's Report.

Antisocial Tendency Among Drug-Addicted Adults: Potential Long-Term Effects of Parental Absence, Support, and Conflict During Childhood

This study examined the relationship between perceptions of parent-child relations in the family of origin and antisocial tendency in a sample of drug-addicted adults. Data included retrospective accounts of childhood family factors, adolescent antisocial tendency and self-reported hostility and risk-taking prior to treatment entry. A developmental model was tested that included adolescent antisocial tendency as a mediator of the relationship between childhood parenting factors and adulthood antisocial tendency. The effects of parental support and conflict were found to operate primarily through adolescent measures of antisocial tendency. Specifically, lower levels of parental support and higher levels of conflict with parents predicted greater adolescent antisocial tendency, which in turn predicted more hostility and risk-taking in adulthood. Thus, parental support appears to serve as a buffer against deviant behavior and drug use. Knight, D.K., Broome, K.M., Cross, D.R., Simpson, D.D., American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 24(3), pp. 361-375, 1998.

A Longitudinal Study of Children of Alcoholics: Predicting Young Adult Substance Use Disorders, Anxiety, and Depression

Investigators at Arizona State University tested the magnitude and specificity of parental alcoholism effects on young adult alcohol and drug abuse/dependence, and also tested whether adolescent symptomatology and adolescent substance use mediated the effects of parental alcoholism on these diagnoses. Participants were from an ongoing longitudinal study in which a target child was assessed in adolescence using computer-assisted interviews with both parents and the child, (N=454 families, mean age at Time 1=12.7). In young adulthood, the original target children and their full-biological siblings were assessed (mean age=21) again using computer-assisted interviewing (N=732 young adults). Results showed unique effects of parent alcoholism on young adult substance abuse and dependence, over and above the effects of other parental psychopathology, suggesting that parent alcoholism is a specific risk factor for substance abuse/dependence above and beyond the general elevation in risk that might be associated with having a dysfunctional parent. Adolescent externalizing symptoms were found to be significant mediators of these effects, suggesting that children of alcoholics are at elevated risk for substance use disorders, in part, because of their broader pattern of early adolescent antisociality and conduct problems. Drug and alcohol diagnoses were mediated somewhat differently. For drug abuse/dependence diagnoses, adolescent conduct problems completely explained the significant parent alcoholism effect, although an effect of parental antisociality remained. However, for alcohol abuse/dependence diagnoses, the effects of parental alcoholism could not be completely explained by adolescent conduct problems. Thus, greater vulnerability to the psychopharmacological properties of alcohol may account for additional risk for alcoholism among children of alcoholics, whereas parental antisociality is more important to drug abuse/dependence because drug use necessarily involves illegal behaviors. Chassin, L., Pitts, S.C., DeLucia, C., and Todd, M. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, pp. 106-119, 1999.

Stress-Coping Factors in Adolescent Substance Use: Test of Ethnic and Gender Differences in Samples of Urban Adolescents

Addressing the question of whether and how the etiology of drug use differs for adolescents in various ethnic groups, researchers investigated group differences in the relationship between stress-coping variables and substance use with samples of inner-city students in 6th-8th grades (N = 1,289) and metropolitan-area students in 7th-9th grades (N = 1,702). Use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana were considered, and measures of psychosocial predictor domains focused on affect, life events, parental support, and coping patterns. African-American adolescents had the lowest rate of substance use, Hispanics were intermediate, and Whites had the highest rate; there was no gender difference in overall substance use. Multiple regression analysis showed that the strength of predictive relationships for stress-coping variables was lower for African Americans and was greatest for Whites; methodological tests showed that these differences were not attributable to statistical artifacts. Hispanic adolescents showed greater vulnerability than did Whites at younger ages but this effect was reversed at later ages. Implications of the study include the importance of incorporating stress-coping components in the design of prevention programs for all ethnic groups. As affective factors were less predictive of substance use among African-American adolescents, programs should give greater attention to other domains when targeting programs to these adolescents. Earlier prevention efforts (before age 12) are likely to be most critical for Hispanic youth. Vaccaro, D. and Wills, T.A. Journal of Drug Education. Vol. 28(3), pp. 257-280, 1998.

Illicit Substance Use Among Adolescents: A Matrix of Prospective Predictors

A research team led by Dr. John Petraitis reviewed findings from 58 prospective studies of illicit substance use (ISU) among adolescents. In addition to including only longitudinal studies, the review considered both significant and nonsignificant findings, focused on relationships for which cross-study validation was possible, and attempted to cover the full range of predictors. Traditional review techniques were used rather than meta-analysis because of the number and range of predictors. The review identified 384 findings and classified them according to three types of influence (social, attitudinal, and intrapersonal) and four levels of influence (ultimate, distal, proximal, and immediate). The bulk of evidence reconfirmed the importance of several predictors of ISU (e.g., intentions and prior substance-related behavior, friendship patterns and peer behaviors, absence of supportive parents, psychological temperament), revealed that a few variables thought to be well-established predictors may not be (e.g., parental behaviors, parental permissiveness, depression, low self-esteem), and uncovered several variables where findings were either sparse or inconsistent (e.g., the role of public policies concerning ISU, mass media depictions of ISU, certain parenting styles, affective states, perceptions of parental disapproval for ISU, and substance-specific refusal skills). Among the well-established findings: (1) ISU rarely is the first problem occurring among adolescents but more often follows other problem behaviors; (2) adolescents usually are prepared cognitively for ISU, usually believing that potential benefits exceed potential costs, etc; (3) ISU usually occurs after exposure to other substance users; (4) ISU is closely related to deviant peer bonding and, to a lesser extent, to detachment from and rebellion against religion, school, and family; (5) ISU occurs more frequently among adolescents who do not control their emotion, when they are extraverted and socially disinhibited, and when they are aggressive around other people --not among those who are anxious, depressed, or low in self-esteem; and (6) though parental permissiveness seems to have little effect on ISU, absence of parental emotional support or absence of an intact family may lay the foundations for ISU. Petraitis, J., Flay, B.R., Miller, T.Q., Torpy, E.J., Greiner, B. Substance Use & Misuse. 33(13), pp. 2561-2604, Nov 1998.

Familial Backgrounds and Risk Behaviors of Youth with Thrownaway Experiences

Some homeless youth have been characterized as "thrownaway" in that they have specifically been told to leave home. In this study conducted by Research Triangle Institute, thrownaway experiences among homeless youth are examined in two national samples: a nationally representative sample of youth residing in youth shelters, and a purposive sample of street youth in 10 cities. Prevalence of thrownaway experiences for the total samples and for demographic subgroups is provided along with comparisons of the familial backgrounds and high-risk behaviors of youth with and without such experiences. Youth with thrownaway experiences constituted nearly half of each sample. In both samples, these youth were more likely than youth without such experiences to report: (1) that they had attempted suicide, used marijuana and other drugs (excluding cocaine), and had been involved in the drug trade and carried hidden weapons; (2) that other family members had used illicit drugs during the 30 days before the youth left home; and (3) that they had spent at least 1 night away from home due to physical and/or emotional abuse or neglect, familial conflict, and familial substance use. Results indicate that thrownaway youth constitute a particularly vulnerable subpopulation of homeless youth and suggest that a greater recognition and understanding of such youth will facilitate design of services that better address their needs. Ringwalt, C., Greene, J., Robertson, M. Journal of Adolescence. 21(3) 241-252, 1998.

Eight-fold Increased Risk of Drug Disorders among Relatives of Probands with Drug Disorders

Merikangas and her colleagues at Yale Genetics Research Unit performed a controlled family study of probands (N=231 probands; N=61 control probands; and N=1267 adult first-degree relatives) with several different predominant drugs of abuse, including opioids, cocaine, cannabis, and/or alcohol. Diagnostic estimates were based on semistructured diagnostic interviews and/or structured family history interviews regarding each proband, spouse, and adult first-degree relative. Interview data were reviewed blindly and independently by clinicians with extensive experience in the evaluation and treatment of substance use disorders. There was an 8-fold increased risk of drug disorders among the relatives of probands with drug disorders across a wide range of specific substances, including opioids, cocaine, cannabis, and alcohol, which is largely independent from the familial aggregation of both alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder. There was also evidence of specificity of familial aggregation of the predominant drug of abuse. Elevation in risk of this magnitude places a family history of drug disorder as one of the most potent risk factors for the development of drug disorders. Results suggest that there may be risk factors that are specific to particular classes of drugs as well as risk factors that underlie substance disorders in general. Merikangas, K.R., Stolar, M., Stevens, D.E., Goulet, J., Presisig, M.A., Fenton, B., Zhang, H., O'Malley, S.S., Rounsaville, B.J. Familial Transmission of Substance Use Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, pp. 973-979, 1998.

Young Adult Drug Use May Be Reduced by Early Interventions, Stronger Parent-Child Bonds

This study examined young adult drug use stemming from childhood aggression, the parent-child mutual attachment relationship, and the effect of unconventionality. Youngsters and their mothers were interviewed when the youngsters were early adolescents, late adolescents, and young adults. Additional data were collected from the mothers when their youngsters were children. The analysis was conducted on youngsters who had complete data at all 4 points in time. The findings were in accord with the family interactional model; that is, the parent-child mutual attachment relationship affects unconventionality in the youngster, which, in turn, affects young adult drug use. The results indicate that the parent-child mutual attachment relationship does so through the stability of : (a) the attachment relationship from childhood to young adulthood, (b) unconventional personality and behavioral attributes from early adolescence to young adulthood, and (c) drug use from early adolescence to young adulthood. The findings imply that early intervention with respect to aggression, inter-ventions that focus on strengthening the parent-child bond and conventional behavior, and interventions aimed at early drug use should be most effective in reducing young adult drug use. Brook, J.S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., and Cohen, P. Mutual Attachment, Personality, and Drug Use: Pathways from Childhood to Young Adulthood. Gen Soc Gen Psy Monogr, 124(4), pp. 492-510, 1998.

Drug Use Among School Dropouts Is Influenced by Association With Drug Using Peers

A sample of 910 Mexican-American and white non-Hispanic school dropouts were surveyed regarding their alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs, and socialization characteristics that have previously been shown to be predictive of adolescent substance use. A structural equation model based on peer cluster theory was evaluated for goodness of fit and for differences in model characteristics by ethnicity and gender. Results partially confirmed peer cluster theory among school dropouts in that association with drug-using peers was the most powerful direct predictor of substance use. The effects of other socializing influences were indirect, mediated through association with drug-using peers. Some differences were present between Mexican-American and white non-Hispanic subgroups. Results were similar to those obtained from previous tests of this model among youth who remain in school, suggesting that social influences on drug use are similar across students and school dropouts. Association with drug-using peers dominates the prediction of substance abuse among school dropouts. Family communication of drug use sanctions helps to both limit substance use and strengthen family bonds. Prior school adjustment is likely to be an important protective factor limiting substance use among Mexican-American dropouts. Swaim, R.C., Bates, M.S., and Chevez, E. Structural Equation Socialization Model of Substance Use Among Mexican-American and White Non-Hispanic School Dropouts. J Adolesc Health, 23, pp. 128-138, 1998.

Clusters Of Marijuana Use In The United States

To assess the extent of clustering of marijuana use within United States neighborhoods, researchers at Johns Hopkins University analyzed data from the annual National Household Survey on Drug Abuse conducted during the period 1990-1995 using alternating logistic regression, a recently developed statistical method. Estimates of pairwise odds ratios ranged from 1.3 (95% confidence interval 1.22-1.42) for the lifetime history of marijuana use to 2.0 (95% confidence interval 1.6-2.6) for recent sharing of marijuana from one person to another. This is approximately the same order of magnitude as the clustering of diarrheal disease in villages of the less developed nations of the world. The extent of clustering of marijuana use was not very dependent upon either neighborhood-level or individual-level characteristics measured in the survey (e.g., age, sex, race, income levels). The more recent and intensive the marijuana use, the greater the clustering within neighborhoods. In addition, the practice of sharing marijuana with other persons also occurs in clusters within neighborhoods. This sharing may be one of the fundamental interpersonal and social processes that accounts for clustering of marijuana use; it is a potential target for future community- and school-oriented prevention programs to curb the increasing prevalence of youthful marijuana use. Bobashev, G.V., and Anthony, J.C. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148(12), pp. 1168-1174, Dec. 1998.

Substance Abuse And Associated Psychosocial Problems Among Argentina Adolescents: Sex Heterogeneity And Familial Transmission

Researchers from the University of Pittsburgh collaborated with researchers in Argentina on a study to clarify the effects of sex and familial transmission in the psychosocial concomitants of substance abuse problems among adolescents. Male (N=956) and female (N=303) adolescents in school, and male adolescents in a drug treatment program (N=51) in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina were administered a translated version of the Drug Use Screening Inventory. Use of substances, familial substance abuse and associations between psychosocial problem domains and substance abuse problems were examined. Substance abuse and psychosocial problems varied broadly by sex. Female adolescents in the school-based sample were found to generally report higher levels of psychosocial problems and greater use of minor tranquilizers than school boys or boys in treatment for substance abuse. Conduct deviancy was associated with substance abuse problems only in males, while health problems were associated only in females. However, among all youth, substance abuse problems were found to be associated with older age, greater social competency, problems in school performance, and involvement with deviant peers. Familial substance abuse was associated with substance abuse problems among all adolescents, but the pattern of associations with other psychosocial problems differed between males and females. Heterogeneity in socioeconomic status was found in the associations between psychosocial problems, adolescent substance abuse, and familial substance abuse. The results are consistent with a syndrome of problem behaviors and demonstrate the cross-cultural consistency of sex heterogeneity in adolescent substance abuse and its consequences. Moss, H.B., Bonicatto, S., Kirisci, L., Girardelli, A.M., Murrelle, L. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 52(3), pp. 221-230, 1998.

Executive Cognitive Functioning, Temperament, and Antisocial Behavior in Conduct-Disordered Adolescent Females

Investigators from CEDAR assessed whether low executive cognitive functioning (ECF) and a difficult temperament are related to aggressive and nonaggressive forms of antisocial behavior (ASB) in 249, 14-18-year-old, conduct-disordered females and controls. ECF was measured using neuropsychological tests; temperament was measured using the Dimensions of Temperament Survey--Revised; and ASB was assessed using psychiatric symptom counts for conduct disorder. The conduct-disordered females exhibited lower ECF capacity and greater difficult temperament compared with controls. The combined influence of low ECF and difficult temperament was significantly related to both forms of ASB. In comparison with low ECF, difficult temperament was more strongly related to nonaggressive ASB, whereas in comparison with difficult temperament, low ECF was more strongly related to aggressive ASB. Last, ECF mediated the relation between difficult temperament and aggressive ASB. Giancola, P.R., Mezzich, A.C., and Tarter, R.E. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 107(4), pp. 629-641, Nov 1998.

Co-morbidity between Panic Disorder and Alcoholism May Not Be a Consequence of Self-medication of Panic Symptoms

This study examines the patterns of familial aggregation and co-morbidity of alcoholism and anxiety disorders in the relatives of 165 probands selected for alcoholism and/or anxiety disorders compared to those of 61 unaffected controls. Probands were either selected from treatment settings or at random from the community. DSM-III-R diagnoses were obtained for all probands and their 1,053 first-degree relatives, based on direct interview or family history information. Findings indicate (1) alcoholism was associated with anxiety disorders in the relatives, particularly among females; (2) both alcoholism and anxiety disorders were highly familial; (3) familial aggregation of alcoholism was attributable to alcohol dependence rather than to alcohol abuse, particularly among male relatives; and (4) the pattern of co-aggregation of alcohol dependence and anxiety disorders in families differed according to the subtype of anxiety disorder; there was evidence of a partly shared diathesis underlying panic and alcoholism whereas social phobia and alcoholism tended to aggregate independently. The finding that the onset of social phobia tended to precede that of alcoholism, when taken together with the independence of familial aggregation of social phobia and alcoholism, supports a self-medication hypothesis for the co-occurrence of social phobia and alcoholism. In contrast, the lack of a systematic pattern in the order of onset of panic and alcoholism among subjects with both disorders as well as evidence for shared underlying familial risk factors suggest that co-morbidity between panic disorder and alcoholism is not a consequence of self-medication of panic symptoms. The study emphasizes the importance of examining co-morbid disorders and subtypes thereof in identifying sources of heterogeneity in the pathogenesis of alcoholism. Merikangas, K.R., Stevens, D.E., Fenton, B., Stolar, F.M., O'Malley, S., Woods, S.W., and Risch, N. Co-morbidity and Familial Aggregation of Alcoholism and Anxiety Disorders. Psychological Medicine 28, pp. 773-788, 1998.

The Etiology of Adult and Adolescent Substance Use May Differ--Substance Use Patterns in Milwaukee Gangs

A study of the patterns of substance use by male and female gang members in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from their teenage years in the 1980s into adulthood indicate that the gangs started out as one form of neighborhood-based drug-using peer groups. Variation existed in drug use but family variables explained little of the variation. Male gang members raised in families with a history of gang involvement and drug use were more likely than other gang members to use cocaine and to use it seriously. On the other hand, severe family distress was not related to onset, duration, nor seriousness of cocaine use in either males or females. Cocaine use for both males and females increased in adulthood. It appears that the etiology of adult and adolescent drug use may differ. Neither social control theory nor differential association theory is well suited to explain the variations in gang drug use by age or gender. Hagedorn, J.M., Torres, J., and Giglio, G. Cocaine, Kicks, and Strain: Patterns of Substance Use in Milwaukee Gangs. Contemporary Drug Problems 25, Spring, pp. 113-145, 1998.

Stressful Life Events and Adolescent Substance Use and Depression: Conditional and Gender Differentiated Effects

Stressful life circumstances have myriad influences on human health and behavior. Early research focused on the variable distribution of stress and its effects by socioeconomic status, race, and gender. More recent research indicates that variation by age is also an important consideration. For example, adolescent reactions to stressful life events are often inconsistent with adult reactions to similar life situations and transitions. Moreover, since most studies assess only a single outcome-usually depression-they risk classification bias since analyses exclude other potential stress-related outcomes. This paper assesses the gender distinct effects of stressful life events on two outcomes among adolescents, substance use and depressive symptoms. The results of a second-order regression model indicate that life events affect female, but not male, depressive symptoms, especially when self-esteem is low or mastery is high. Furthermore, life events affect substance use when peer drug use is high, or when parental support is low, but this latter effect is limited to female adolescents. Hoffmann, J.P., and Su, S.S. Substance Use & Misuse 33(11), pp. 2219-2262, 1998.

Major Depression in Children of Parents Dependent on Opiates is Associated with Increased Risk of Physical Health Problems

A study to examine the strength and specificity of the association between depression and physical health problems in children and adolescents whose parents were dependent upon opiates found the offspring to be at increased risk of physical health problems. The sample consisted of offspring ages 6-17 (mean age 11 years) of opiate addicts who had a history of MDD (N=28); other mood disorders (N=31); no history of mood disorders but other psychiatric disorders (N=92); or no history of psychiatric disorder (N=127). Detailed psychiatric assessment and medical history of the offspring by direct interview with the offspring and an informant were obtained blind to parental diagnosis. After controlling for possible confounders, there was an increased risk of dermatological disorders, headache, other neurological/neuromuscular disorders, bronchitis, other respiratory disorders and hospitalizations for nonsurgical procedures in offspring with MDD, as compared to nonpsychiatrically ill controls. The offspring with other mood disorders had a slightly elevated risk. Major depression in children and adolescents whose parents are dependent on opiates is associated with increased risk of physical health problems. This is consistent with other reports; however, the timing of the physical health problems requires further study. McAvay, G.M., Nunes, E.V., Zaider, T.I., Goldstein, R.B., Weissman, M.M. Physical Health Problems in Depressed and Non Depressed Children and Adolescents of Parents with Opiate Dependence. Depression and Anxiety, 9, 1999.

Startle Response May Be Vulnerability Marker to Discriminate among Children at Risk for Development of Anxiety Disorders and/or Alcoholism

This study examined startle reflex as a possible vulnerability marker among offspring of parents with anxiety disorders and/or alcoholism. Subjects were male and female offspring (N=66), 10 to 17 years of age, of probands who participated in a family study of comorbidity of alcoholism and anxiety disorders. Testing consisted of examining the startle reflex and its modulation by prepulse stimuli (prepulse facilitation and prepulse inhibition). Different components of the startle discriminated among children of parents with anxiety disorders and/or alcoholism, and children of normal controls. Specifically, startle magnitude was elevated in children with a parental history of an anxiety disorder whereas startle habituation and prepulse inhibition were impaired in children with a parental history of alcoholism. Findings suggest that individual differences in startle reflex may serve as a vulnerability marker for the development of anxiety disorders and alcohol problems. Grillon, C., Dierker, L., and Merikangas, K.R. Fear-Potentiated Startle in Adolescent Offspring of Parents with Anxiety Disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 44, pp. 990-997, 1998.

Ethnic and Gender Differences in Drug Use and Resistance

A survey was conducted to measure drug use, drug offers and drug resistance and to compare male and female members of different ethnic groups in seventh grade classes in the Phoenix metropolitan area. The survey was administered to over 4,000 students, with usable data obtained from 3,080. Significant ethnic and gender differences were described in drug use and, more importantly, in the drug offer and resistance process. Results indicate younger adolescents (12-13) do not possess large or sophisticated repertoires of strategies to resist drug offers and most offers come from acquaintances while previous studies report offers come from more intimate relationships for older adolescents. Also illustrated was that ethnicity and gender are related to drug use and how drugs are offered and resisted. This suggests that ethnic and gender specific approaches are needed in prevention curricula and refusal and life skills should be stressed. Moon, D.G., Hecht, M.L., Jackson, K.M., & Spellers, R. Ethnic and Gender Differences and Similarities in Adolescent Drug Use and the Drug Resistance Process. Substance Use and Misuse, 34, pp. 1059-1083, 1999.

Parental Monitoring

The link between parental monitoring and child problem behavior has been established in three areas: substance abuse, anti-social behavior, and safety and injury. This paper reviews the work to date on the construct and accomplishes three goals: first, to provide an empirical rationale for placing parental monitoring of children's activities as a key construct in development and prevention research; second, to stimulate more research on parental monitoring and provide an integrative framework for various research traditions as well as developmental periods of interest; third, to discuss current methodological issues that are developmentally and culturally sensitive and based on sound measurement. Possible intervention and prevention strategies that specifically target parental monitoring are discussed. Dishion, T.J., and McMahon, R.J. Parental Monitoring and the Prevention of Child and Adolescent Problem Behavior: A Conceptual and Empirical Formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, pp. 61-75, 1998.

Antecedents of Substance Use Initiation

Initiation of substance use before the age of 15-16 is a distinct risk factor for a variety of mental health problems and eventual drug abuse. Using multi-method, multi-agent measures of child, family, and peer antecedents at age 9-10, the investigators studied the longitudinal effects in an at-risk sample of 206 boys. Event history analysis was used to examine the antecedents to patterned alcohol and tobacco use, and experimentation with marijuana between age 11-16. Univariate models revealed that at Grade 4, most constructs were prognostic of boys' early substance use. Multivariate event history models clarified the risk and protective structure associated with tobacco, alcohol and marijuana use. The effects of family context, family management and peer factors were entirely mediated through characteristics of the boys at Grade 4 for alcohol initiation. Anti-social behavior was key for early onset alcohol and marijuana use. Low SES and low sociometric status were predictive of early tobacco use. Interaction effects for prediction of marijuana and tobacco onset indicated that their association with family management and boy's characteristics may vary by level of parental substance use. Dishion, T.J., Capaldi, D.M., and Yoerger, K. Middle Childhood Antecedents to Progression in Male Adolescent Substance Use: An Ecological Analysis of Risk and Protection. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14(2), pp. 175-206, 1999.

Sexual and Physical Abuse at Home Predicts Suicide Attempts by Homeless Street Youth

A study was conducted to examine the relationship between home life risk factors and suicide attempts among homeless and runaway street youth recruited from both shelters and street locations in Denver, New York City, and San Francisco. Street youth (N=775) age 12-19 years old were recruited in 1992 and 1993 by street outreach staff for interview. Cross-sectional, retrospective data were analyzed to examine the relationship between suicide attempts and antecedent home life variables. Suicide attempts were reported by 48% of the females and 27% of the males, with a mean of 6.2 times for females and 5.1 times for males. Among the females, 70% reported sexual abuse and 35% reported physical abuse; among males, 24% reported sexual abuse and 35% reported physical abuse. Sexual and physical abuse before leaving home were independent predictors of suicide attempts for both females and males. Among street youth in this study who were sexually or physically abused, the odds of attempting suicide were 1.9 to 4.3 times the odds of attempting suicide among those not sexually or physically abused. Interventions attempting to reduce risk behaviors in this population must include assessments of suicidal behaviors as well as components for assisting youth in dealing with the behavioral and emotional sequelae of sexual and physical abuse. Molnar, B.E., Shade, S.B., Kral, A., et al. Suicidal Behavior and Sexual/Physical Abuse Among Street Youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22 (3): pp. 213-222, 1998.

Pregnancy Among Three National Samples of Runaway and Homeless Youth

Investigators at Research Triangle Institute compared estimates of the prevalence of pregnancy among runaway and homeless youth between the ages of 14 and 17 years in various settings with each other and with youth in the general population. Comparisons used three surveys of youth: (1) the first nationally representative survey of runaway and homeless youth residing in federally and non-federally funded shelter, (2) a multi-city survey of street youth, and (3) a nationally representative household survey of youth with and without recent runaway and homeless experiences. Youth living on the streets had the highest lifetime rates of pregnancy (48%), followed by youth residing in shelters (33%) and household youth (<10%). The investigators concluded that shelter and street youth were at much greater risk of having ever been pregnant than were youth in households regardless of whether they had recent runaway or homeless experiences. Such youth need comprehensive services, including pregnancy prevention, family planning, and prenatal and parenting services. Greene, J., and Ringwalt, C. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23(6), pp. 370-377, 1998.

A Test of the Social Development Model

The social development model (SDM) is a general theory of human behavior that hypothesizes that similar developmental processes can lead to either prosocial or antisocial outcomes. The current study examines the relation between family behavior and early anti-social behavior using data on 938 first and second grade students in ten suburban public elementary schools. Children were part of the longitudinal Raising Healthy Children project, which began in 1993. Child, teacher and parent reports were collected annually in the spring from 1994 through 1996. Analysis one examined the prosocial path of the SDM. The model fit well, explaining 25% of the variance in early antisocial behavior. However, the path between skills and rewards from the family was not significant. A better fit was obtained when the model included paths from skills to beliefs and skills to antisocial behavior. In analysis two, the sample was split into two groups, those whose parents modeled problem behavior (heavy drinking, illicit drug use and domestic violence) and those who did not. Two differences emerged between the two groups. First, the strength of the path between skills and problem behavior was significantly stronger for children whose parents modeled problem behaviors. Second, the belief in family values path to antisocial behavior was not significant for children whose parents modeled problem behaviors. Thus, beliefs provide a significant protective effect for children whose parents do not model problem behaviors, but not for children in families where parents model problem behaviors. Catalano, R.F., Oxford, M., Harachi, T.W., Abbott, R. D., Haggerty, K.P. Modeling the Development of Early Antisocial Behavior: A Test of the Social Development Model to Predict Problem Behavior during the During the Elementary School Period. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 9, pp. 40-57, 1999.

Psychopathology Among Offspring of Parents with Substance Abuse and/or Anxiety Disorders

In a study with a high-risk population of children under age 18 of parents who served as probands in a family study of comorbidity of substance abuse and anxiety disorders, there was a strong degree of specificity of familial aggregation of both the anxiety disorders and substance use disorders. Rates of conduct disorder and depression were elevated among offspring of all affected parents. Inclusion of co-parent disorders in the evaluation of familial transmission in the present study strengthened the findings regarding the specificity of transmission of the anxiety disorders and the links between both parental substance abuse and antisocial personality with child conduct disorder. Merikangas, K.R., Dierker, L.C., and Szatmari, P. Psychopathology Among Offspring of Parents with Substance Abuse and/or Anxiety Disorders: A High-Risk Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39(5), pp. 711-720, 1998.

Extracurricular Activities Related to School Retention Among Mexican Americans Students

With a growing Mexican American population and an increasing dropout rate predicted for this group, research is needed to examine ways of deterring this trend and increasing retention rates. The current study examined extracurricular activity, perception of school, and ethnic identification, and the association with school retention rates among Mexican American and White non-Hispanics. Individuals reporting participation in extracurricular activity were 2.30 times more likely to be enrolled in school than were those not participating in extracurricular activity. Mexican Americans reporting a higher White non-Hispanic ethnic identity level were 2.41 times more likely to be enrolled in school and had a more positive perception of school than did Mexican American individuals reporting low levels of White non-Hispanic ethnic identification. Davalos, D.B., Chavez, E.L., and Guardiola, R.J. The Effects of Extracurricular Activity, Ethnic Identification, and Perception of School on Student Dropout Rates. Hispanic J Behavioral Sciences, 21(1), pp. 61-77, 1999.